Medical Pharmacology Chapter 13: Pain Management: Opioids
Repeated opioid administration results in a gradual loss of effect, e.g. tolerance
Physical Dependence: physiological withdrawal symptoms (abstinence syndrome) if an antagonist is administered or the agonist is stopped.
Tolerance is not developed equally to all opioid effects.
| High | Intermediate | Limited/None | 
| Analgesia | Bradycardia | Miosis | 
| Euphoria, dysphoria | Constipation | |
| Mental clouding | Convulsions | |
| Sedation | Antagonist actions | |
| Respiratory depression | ||
| Antidiuresis | ||
| Nausea/vomiting | ||
| Cough suppression | 
Adapted from Figure 31-4: Way, W.L., Fields, H.L. and Way, E. L. Opioid Analgesics and Antagonists, in Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, (Katzung, B. G., ed) Appleton-Lange, 1998, p. 505.
| Rhinorrhea | Lacrimation | Chills | Hyperventilation | Muscular aches | Vomiting | 
| Anxiety | Diarrhea | Hostility | Piloerection | Yawning | Hyperventilation | 
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